Have you ever heard of Ashurbanipal, the king who built a vast library despite his ruthless reputation?
A king of contradictions. Ashurbanipal, the last ruler of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, was renowned for both his vast library and his ruthless conquests.
The captivating tale of the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal dates back to the 7th century BC, and belonged to Ashurbanipal, the last king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Discovered amidst the ruins of Nineveh in modern-day Iraq in mid 19th century, this remarkable repository offers a glimpse into the intellectual legacy of a bygone era.
Who was Ashurbanipal? He reigned over a vast domain, stretching from Cyprus to Iran [1], from around 669 BC TO 627 BC [8], known for his intellect and ruthlessness. This dedication to knowledge is evident in his most remarkable legacy – the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal.
The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal
Established around 647 BC, the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal stands as a testament to the rich literary heritage of Mesopotamia. Its systematic organization and diverse collection reflect the king’s vision to preserve the wisdom of millennia [2, 8]. Though Mesopotamian literature has a rich history dating back to around 2600 BC, Assyrian literary collections before Ashurbanipal’s reign were not as comprehensive.
Architecture and Collection
Housed within the grand halls of Nineveh’s royal palaces, the library boasted vast chambers filled with countless cuneiform tablets [6]. Ashurbanipal actively enriched the collection through various means: inheriting tablets from his ancestors, acquiring them through forceful means from conquered territories [10], and sending out agents to ‘hunt’ for valuable works from nearby cities [2, 3]. His ambition was evident in a directive to his agents: “no one is to withhold a tablet from you” [2]. This policy, coupled with confiscations from conquered Babylon [10], significantly expanded the library’s reach.
The earliest Assyrian tablets in the library trace back to the reigns of Sargon II (721 BC – 705 BC) and Sennacherib (704 BC – 681 BC). This historical legacy was inherited and passed down through the hands of Esarhaddon (680 BC – 668 BC) to his son Ashurbanipal. It was during Ashurbanipal’s reign that the library was officially established and systematically organized [8].
Many tablets were marked with something called ‘colophons’, which are written at the end of the inscription. These colophons usually include notes about the written material, the author and other details. For Ashurbanipal, his colophons included explicit terms that the tablets were written for personal use of the king in his palace [5], and some even included threads against whoever removes the tablets. For example, one of his colophons included:
“Clay Tablet of Ashurbanipal, King of the World, King of Assyria, who trusts Ashur and Ninlil. Your lordship is without equal, Ashur, King of the Gods! Whoever removes [the tablet], write his name in place of my name, may Ashur and Ninlil, anfered and grim, cast him down, erase his name, his seed, in the land.” [4].
The total number of tablets and fragments excavated in Nineveh is at least 31,000 items [5]. Archaeological evidence reveals that the tablets included cuneiform inscriptions in both Akkadian and Sumerian languages, covering an array of disciplines such as medicine, linguistics, religion, history, astrology, astronomy, and captivating literary works. Notably, the Epic of Gilgamesh stands out as a noteworthy inclusion, as well as the Enuma Elish – the Babylonian Epic of Creation and the Mesopotamian story of the Great Flood [6, 7]. Of the archives were tablets concerning purchases, loans, omens, treaty and eponym lists, general administrative texts and legal letters [5].
Destruction
Renowned for his intellect and ruthlessness, Ashurbanipal sought to amass the most comprehensive collection of knowledge for himself and his descendants [2,8]. However, this remarkable repository wouldn’t survive the turbulent times that followed the New-Assyrian Empire’s decline.
As the Assyrian Empire crumbled, so too did the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal. Accounts of its demise vary, but archaeological evidence suggests it fell victim to the sack of Nineveh by Babylonians and Medes in 612 BC [7, 8]. Despite its fiery demise, the library’s legacy endured, offering a glimpse into the intellectual pursuits of ancient civilizations.
Archaeological excavations revealed compelling evidence of the widespread fire and violence at the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal. While the sack of Nineveh by the Babylonians and Medes undoubtedly caused damage and the loss of significant cultural and intellectual heritage, the intense heat of the fire may have inadvertently preserved some of the clay tablets, baking them harder and making them more resistant to the ravages of time [2].
Excavations
How did we get to know this remarkable library?
The story begins with the British East India Company, a powerful trading entity with influence . One of their employees, Claudius James Rich, a scholar and avid collector of antiquities, made a groundbreaking discovery during his visit to the site of Nineveh in 1820-1: the first cuneiform tablet from Ashurbanipal’s library. This sparked the interest in the region, prompting France to send archaeologist Paul-Émile Botta to excavate Nineveh [9].
Inspired by Botta’s discoveries, British adventurer Sir Austen Henry Layard, with funding from the British ambassador, assembled a team that began digging in Nineveh in the mid-19th century [9]. Layard’s team, overseen by Hormuzd Rassam, made significant finds. They unearthed an staggering 30,000 tablets and fragments from four royal libraries, including the vast library of Ashurbanipal [4, 9, 10]. These findings are now exhibited in museums in London, Paris, Philadelphia, New York, Istanbul and Baghdad [2, 9]. However, numerous tablets remain unexplored, their examination delayed solely due to constraints in time and manpower [2].
Final Note
The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal transcends mere collections of clay tablets; it embodies the aspirations to safeguard the culture and preserve the accumulated wisdom of millennia. It stands as a testament to the enduring power of knowledge and rich literary heritage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, offering a window into the minds of ancient scholars and scribes.
However, the Assyrian Empire crumbled. Despite its destruction, the library’s legacy continues to inspire awe and shed light on the intellectual pursuits of a lost civilization. The painstaking efforts of archaeologists and scholars have brought these voices from the past back to life, allowing us to connect with the thoughts, stories, and scientific understanding of a civilization that thrived millennia ago.
The vast collection of tablets, with its diverse contents, offers a window into the world of the ancient Mesopotamians, and paves the way for a deeper understanding of human history and cultural development. The story of Ashurbanipal’s library is not just about the past; it’s a reminder of the importance of preserving knowledge and intellectual curiosity for generations to come.
Want to learn more about the wonders of ancient Assyria? Click here to see the ornate carved stone panels from the Neo-Assyrian Southwest Palace at Nineveh, in Room 9 at the British Museum.
If you have any additional information about the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal or any insights you’d like to share, feel free to drop a comment below. The world of history is vast, and collective knowledge enhances our understanding. Your contributions make this exploration even more enriching!
Disclaimer:
This blog post is released under a Creative Commons, Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. It is intended to provide an overview of the featured world libraries based on the information available to the author. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, it’s important to note that historical information may vary, and there could be additional details found in various history books, references, or scholarly works. This post serves as an introduction, and readers are encouraged to explore further readings for a comprehensive understanding of the subject.
References:
1. British Museum. Who was Ashurbanipal? British Museum Blog. Published on 19 June 2018. Retrieved on 11 May 2024.
2. Black, Jeremy. Lost Libraries of Ancient Mesopotamia. Lost Libraries The Destruction of Great Book Collections since Antiquity. Edited by James Raven. Palgrave MacMillan. 2004.
3. Cartwright, Mark. “Libraries in the Ancient World.” World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 23 July 2019. Web. 12 May 2024.
4. Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. Yale University Press. 2002.
5. Finkel, Irving. “Assurbanipal’s Library: An Overview”. Libraries before Alexandria: Ancient Near Eastern Traditions. Edited by Kim Ryholt and Gojko Barjamovic. Oxford University Press. 2019.
6. Hirst, Kris. The Library of Ashurbanipal. ThoughtCo, 22 Jul 2018, Web. 13 May 2024.
7. Mark, Joshua. “Ashurbanipal”. World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 02 Sep 2009. Web. 12 May 2024.
8. Mark, Joshua. “Library of Ashurbanipal”. World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 23 Jan 2023. Web 13 May 2024.
9. Ovenden, Richard. Burning of Books: A History of the Deliberate Destruction of Knowledge. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 2020.
10. Robson, Eleanor. “Reading the libraries of Assyria and Babylonia”. Ancient Libraries. Edited by Janson König, Katerina Oikonomopoulou, and Greg Woolf. Cambridge University Press. 2013.
Image References:
1. The Trustees of the British Museum. Fragment of a clay tablet with inscription in cuneiform, written for the library of Ashurbanipal. 7th century BC. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. The British Museum.
2. The Trustees of the British Museum. Part of a clay tablet, Assyrian synonym list, Neo-Assyrian. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. The British Museum.
3. The Trustees of the British Museum. Epic of Gilgamesh, tablet 11, story of the Flood. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.The British Museum.
4. The Trustees of the British Museum. Tablets from the library of Ashurbanipal at the Museum. A Library Fit for King. The British Museum.
5. The Trustees of the British Museum. The Monuments of Nineveh. 1849. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. The British Museum.
6. The Trustees of the British Museum. Watercolour drawing on paper. By Frederick Charles Cooper. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. The British Museum.
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